Merge remote-tracking branch 'osgeo/master' into 6.0

14 files changed, 356 insertions, 133 deletions

diff --git a/docs/source/apps/projinfo.rst b/docs/source/apps/projinfo.rst
index cbfd44d4..af9ed171 100644
--- a/docs/source/apps/projinfo.rst
+++ b/docs/source/apps/projinfo.rst
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ Synopsis
     |    [--spatial-test contains|intersects]
     |    [--crs-extent-use none|both|intersection|smallest]
     |    [--grid-check none|discard_missing|sort] [--show-superseded]
-    |    [--pivot-crs none|{auth:code[,auth:code]*}]
+    |    [--pivot-crs always|if_no_direct_transformation|never|{auth:code[,auth:code]*}]
     |    [--boundcrs-to-wgs84]
     |    [--main-db-path path] [--aux-db-path path]*
     |    [--identify]
@@ -157,13 +157,16 @@ The following control parameters can appear in any order:
 
     .. note:: only used for coordinate operation computation
 
-.. option:: --pivot-crs none|{auth:code[,auth:code]*}
+.. option:: --pivot-crs always|if_no_direct_transformation|never|{auth:code[,auth:code]*}
 
     Determine if intermediate (pivot) CRS can be used when researching coordinate
     operation between 2 CRS. A typical example is the WGS84 pivot. By default,
-    projinfo will consider any potential pivot. If using the ``none`` strategy,
+    projinfo will consider any potential pivot if there is no direct transformation
+    ( ``if_no_direct_transformation``). If using the ``never`` strategy,
     only direct transformations between the source and target CRS will be
-    used. It is also possible to restrict the pivot CRS to consider by specifying
+    used. If using the ``always`` strategy, intermediate CRS will be considered
+    even if there are direct transformations.
+    It is also possible to restrict the pivot CRS to consider by specifying
     one or several CRS by their AUTHORITY:CODE.
 
     .. note:: only used for coordinate operation computation
diff --git a/include/proj/coordinateoperation.hpp b/include/proj/coordinateoperation.hpp
index 6b32e24d..92b655f9 100644
--- a/include/proj/coordinateoperation.hpp
+++ b/include/proj/coordinateoperation.hpp
@@ -1726,9 +1726,22 @@ class PROJ_GCC_DLL CoordinateOperationContext {
 
     PROJ_DLL GridAvailabilityUse getGridAvailabilityUse() const;
 
-    PROJ_DLL void setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(bool use);
+    /** Describe if and how intermediate CRS should be used */
+    enum class IntermediateCRSUse {
+        /** Always search for intermediate CRS. */
+        ALWAYS,
 
-    PROJ_DLL bool getAllowUseIntermediateCRS() const;
+        /** Only attempt looking for intermediate CRS if there is no direct
+         * transformation available. */
+        IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION,
+
+        /* Do not attempt looking for intermediate CRS. */
+        NEVER,
+    };
+
+    PROJ_DLL void setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(IntermediateCRSUse use);
+
+    PROJ_DLL IntermediateCRSUse getAllowUseIntermediateCRS() const;
 
     PROJ_DLL void
     setIntermediateCRS(const std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>
diff --git a/include/proj/crs.hpp b/include/proj/crs.hpp
index 6a09ea78..fb34d3b7 100644
--- a/include/proj/crs.hpp
+++ b/include/proj/crs.hpp
@@ -92,9 +92,10 @@ class PROJ_GCC_DLL CRS : public common::ObjectUsage {
     PROJ_DLL GeodeticCRSPtr extractGeodeticCRS() const;
     PROJ_DLL GeographicCRSPtr extractGeographicCRS() const;
     PROJ_DLL VerticalCRSPtr extractVerticalCRS() const;
-    PROJ_DLL CRSNNPtr
-    createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(const io::DatabaseContextPtr &dbContext,
-                                    bool allowIntermediateCRS) const;
+    PROJ_DLL CRSNNPtr createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+        const io::DatabaseContextPtr &dbContext,
+        operation::CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse
+            allowIntermediateCRSUse) const;
     PROJ_DLL CRSNNPtr stripVerticalComponent() const;
 
     PROJ_DLL const BoundCRSPtr &canonicalBoundCRS() PROJ_PURE_DECL;
diff --git a/src/apps/projinfo.cpp b/src/apps/projinfo.cpp
index 29cf5fc3..9f908c8a 100644
--- a/src/apps/projinfo.cpp
+++ b/src/apps/projinfo.cpp
@@ -88,8 +88,8 @@ static void usage() {
         << "                [--grid-check none|discard_missing|sort] "
            "[--show-superseded]"
         << std::endl
-        << "                [--pivot-crs none|{auth:code[,auth:code]*}]"
-        << std::endl
+        << "                [--pivot-crs always|if_no_direct_transformation|"
+        << "never|{auth:code[,auth:code]*}]" << std::endl
         << "                [--boundcrs-to-wgs84]" << std::endl
         << "                [--main-db-path path] [--aux-db-path path]*"
         << std::endl
@@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ static std::string c_ify_string(const std::string &str) {
 static BaseObjectNNPtr buildObject(DatabaseContextPtr dbContext,
                                    const std::string &user_string,
                                    bool kindIsCRS, const std::string &context,
-                                   bool buildBoundCRSToWGS84, bool allowPivots,
+                                   bool buildBoundCRSToWGS84, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse allowUseIntermediateCRS,
                                    bool quiet) {
     BaseObjectPtr obj;
 
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ static BaseObjectNNPtr buildObject(DatabaseContextPtr dbContext,
     if (buildBoundCRSToWGS84) {
         auto crs = std::dynamic_pointer_cast<CRS>(obj);
         if (crs) {
-            obj = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, allowPivots)
+            obj = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, allowUseIntermediateCRS)
                       .as_nullable();
         }
     }
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ static BaseObjectNNPtr buildObject(DatabaseContextPtr dbContext,
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
 static void outputObject(DatabaseContextPtr dbContext, BaseObjectNNPtr obj,
-                         bool allowPivots, const OutputOptions &outputOpt) {
+                         CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse allowUseIntermediateCRS, const OutputOptions &outputOpt) {
 
     auto identified = dynamic_cast<const IdentifiedObject *>(obj.get());
     if (!outputOpt.quiet && identified && identified->isDeprecated()) {
@@ -272,7 +272,7 @@ static void outputObject(DatabaseContextPtr dbContext, BaseObjectNNPtr obj,
                     objToExport =
                         nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<IPROJStringExportable>(
                             crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext,
-                                                                 allowPivots));
+                                                                 allowUseIntermediateCRS));
                 }
                 if (!objToExport) {
                     objToExport = projStringExportable;
@@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ static void outputObject(DatabaseContextPtr dbContext, BaseObjectNNPtr obj,
                 if (crs) {
                     objToExport = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<IWKTExportable>(
                         crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext,
-                                                             allowPivots));
+                                                             allowUseIntermediateCRS));
                 }
                 if (!objToExport) {
                     objToExport = wktExportable;
@@ -516,12 +516,14 @@ static void outputOperations(
     CoordinateOperationContext::SpatialCriterion spatialCriterion,
     CoordinateOperationContext::SourceTargetCRSExtentUse crsExtentUse,
     CoordinateOperationContext::GridAvailabilityUse gridAvailabilityUse,
-    bool allowPivots,
+    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse allowUseIntermediateCRS,
     const std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> &pivots,
     const std::string &authority, bool usePROJGridAlternatives,
     bool showSuperseded, const OutputOptions &outputOpt, bool summary) {
     auto sourceObj = buildObject(dbContext, sourceCRSStr, true, "source CRS",
-                                 false, false, outputOpt.quiet);
+                                 false,
+                                 CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER,
+                                 outputOpt.quiet);
     auto sourceCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<CRS>(sourceObj);
     if (!sourceCRS) {
         std::cerr << "source CRS string is not a CRS" << std::endl;
@@ -529,7 +531,9 @@ static void outputOperations(
     }
 
     auto targetObj = buildObject(dbContext, targetCRSStr, true, "target CRS",
-                                 false, false, outputOpt.quiet);
+                                 false,
+                                 CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER,
+                                 outputOpt.quiet);
     auto targetCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<CRS>(targetObj);
     if (!targetCRS) {
         std::cerr << "target CRS string is not a CRS" << std::endl;
@@ -548,7 +552,7 @@ static void outputOperations(
         ctxt->setSpatialCriterion(spatialCriterion);
         ctxt->setSourceAndTargetCRSExtentUse(crsExtentUse);
         ctxt->setGridAvailabilityUse(gridAvailabilityUse);
-        ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(allowPivots);
+        ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(allowUseIntermediateCRS);
         ctxt->setIntermediateCRS(pivots);
         ctxt->setUsePROJAlternativeGridNames(usePROJGridAlternatives);
         ctxt->setDiscardSuperseded(!showSuperseded);
@@ -560,7 +564,7 @@ static void outputOperations(
         std::exit(1);
     }
     if (outputOpt.quiet && !list.empty()) {
-        outputObject(dbContext, list[0], allowPivots, outputOpt);
+        outputObject(dbContext, list[0], allowUseIntermediateCRS, outputOpt);
         return;
     }
     if (summary) {
@@ -586,7 +590,7 @@ static void outputOperations(
             }
             outputOperationSummary(op);
             std::cout << std::endl;
-            outputObject(dbContext, op, allowPivots, outputOpt);
+            outputObject(dbContext, op, allowUseIntermediateCRS, outputOpt);
         }
     }
 }
@@ -617,7 +621,8 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) {
     bool buildBoundCRSToWGS84 = false;
     CoordinateOperationContext::GridAvailabilityUse gridAvailabilityUse =
         CoordinateOperationContext::GridAvailabilityUse::USE_FOR_SORTING;
-    bool allowPivots = true;
+    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse allowUseIntermediateCRS =
+    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION;
     std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> pivots;
     bool usePROJGridAlternatives = true;
     std::string mainDBPath;
@@ -814,8 +819,15 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) {
         } else if (arg == "--pivot-crs" && i + 1 < argc) {
             i++;
             auto value(argv[i]);
-            if (ci_equal(std::string(value), "none")) {
-                allowPivots = false;
+            if (ci_equal(std::string(value), "always")) {
+                allowUseIntermediateCRS =
+                    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS;
+            } else if (ci_equal(std::string(value), "if_no_direct_transformation")) {
+                allowUseIntermediateCRS =
+                    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION;
+            } else if (ci_equal(std::string(value), "never")) {
+                allowUseIntermediateCRS =
+                    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER;
             } else {
                 auto splitValue(split(value, ','));
                 for (const auto &v : splitValue) {
@@ -915,7 +927,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) {
 
     if (!user_string.empty()) {
         auto obj(buildObject(dbContext, user_string, kindIsCRS, "input string",
-                             buildBoundCRSToWGS84, allowPivots,
+                             buildBoundCRSToWGS84, allowUseIntermediateCRS,
                              outputOpt.quiet));
         if (guessDialect) {
             auto dialect = WKTParser().guessDialect(user_string);
@@ -933,7 +945,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) {
             }
             std::cout << std::endl;
         }
-        outputObject(dbContext, obj, allowPivots, outputOpt);
+        outputObject(dbContext, obj, allowUseIntermediateCRS, outputOpt);
         if (identify) {
             auto crs = dynamic_cast<CRS *>(obj.get());
             if (crs) {
@@ -1043,7 +1055,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) {
 
         outputOperations(
             dbContext, sourceCRSStr, targetCRSStr, bboxFilter, spatialCriterion,
-            crsExtentUse, gridAvailabilityUse, allowPivots, pivots, authority,
+            crsExtentUse, gridAvailabilityUse, allowUseIntermediateCRS, pivots, authority,
             usePROJGridAlternatives, showSuperseded, outputOpt, summary);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/iso19111/c_api.cpp b/src/iso19111/c_api.cpp
index 79732bab..b3f200fe 100644
--- a/src/iso19111/c_api.cpp
+++ b/src/iso19111/c_api.cpp
@@ -1475,7 +1475,8 @@ PJ *proj_crs_create_bound_crs(PJ_CONTEXT *ctx, const PJ *base_crs,
  * @param options null-terminated list of options, or NULL. Currently
  * supported options are:
  * <ul>
- * <li>ALLOW_INTERMEDIATE_CRS=YES/NO. Defaults to NO. When set to YES,
+ * <li>ALLOW_INTERMEDIATE_CRS=ALWAYS/IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION/NEVER. Defaults
+ * to NEVER. When set to ALWAYS/IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION,
  * intermediate CRS may be considered when computing the possible
  * transformations. Slower.</li>
  * </ul>
@@ -1493,11 +1494,18 @@ PJ *proj_crs_create_bound_crs_to_WGS84(PJ_CONTEXT *ctx, const PJ *crs,
     }
     auto dbContext = getDBcontextNoException(ctx, __FUNCTION__);
     try {
-        bool allowIntermediateCRS = false;
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse allowIntermediateCRS =
+            CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER;
         for (auto iter = options; iter && iter[0]; ++iter) {
             const char *value;
             if ((value = getOptionValue(*iter, "ALLOW_INTERMEDIATE_CRS="))) {
-                allowIntermediateCRS = ci_equal(value, "YES");
+                if (ci_equal(value, "YES") || ci_equal(value, "ALWAYS")) {
+                    allowIntermediateCRS =
+                        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS;
+                } else if (ci_equal(value, "IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION")) {
+                    allowIntermediateCRS = CoordinateOperationContext::
+                        IntermediateCRSUse::IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION;
+                }
             } else {
                 std::string msg("Unknown option :");
                 msg += *iter;
@@ -6378,22 +6386,36 @@ void proj_operation_factory_context_set_use_proj_alternative_grid_names(
  * The current implementation is limited to researching one intermediate
  * step.
  *
- * By default, all potential C candidates will be used.
- * proj_operation_factory_context_set_allowed_intermediate_crs()
- * can be used to restrict them.
- *
- * The default is true.
+ * By default, with the IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION stratgey, all potential
+ * C candidates will be used if there is no direct tranformation.
  *
  * @param ctx PROJ context, or NULL for default context
  * @param factory_ctx Operation factory context. must not be NULL
- * @param allow whether intermediate CRS may be used.
+ * @param use whether and how intermediate CRS may be used.
  */
 void proj_operation_factory_context_set_allow_use_intermediate_crs(
-    PJ_CONTEXT *ctx, PJ_OPERATION_FACTORY_CONTEXT *factory_ctx, int allow) {
+    PJ_CONTEXT *ctx, PJ_OPERATION_FACTORY_CONTEXT *factory_ctx,
+    PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE use) {
     SANITIZE_CTX(ctx);
     assert(factory_ctx);
     try {
-        factory_ctx->operationContext->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(allow != 0);
+        switch (use) {
+        case PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_ALWAYS:
+            factory_ctx->operationContext->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+                CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS);
+            break;
+
+        case PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION:
+            factory_ctx->operationContext->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+                CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::
+                    IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION);
+            break;
+
+        case PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_NEVER:
+            factory_ctx->operationContext->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+                CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
+            break;
+        }
     } catch (const std::exception &e) {
         proj_log_error(ctx, __FUNCTION__, e.what());
     }
diff --git a/src/iso19111/coordinateoperation.cpp b/src/iso19111/coordinateoperation.cpp
index d964cdc1..2128124b 100644
--- a/src/iso19111/coordinateoperation.cpp
+++ b/src/iso19111/coordinateoperation.cpp
@@ -9242,7 +9242,8 @@ struct CoordinateOperationContext::Private {
     bool usePROJNames_ = true;
     GridAvailabilityUse gridAvailabilityUse_ =
         GridAvailabilityUse::USE_FOR_SORTING;
-    bool allowUseIntermediateCRS_ = true;
+    IntermediateCRSUse allowUseIntermediateCRS_ = CoordinateOperationContext::
+        IntermediateCRSUse::IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION;
     std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>
         intermediateCRSAuthCodes_{};
     bool discardSuperseded_ = true;
@@ -9436,18 +9437,17 @@ CoordinateOperationContext::getGridAvailabilityUse() const {
  *
  * Concretely if in the database there is an operation from A to C
  * (or C to A), and another one from C to B (or B to C), but no direct
- * operation between A and B, setting this parameter to true, allow
- * chaining both operations.
+ * operation between A and B, setting this parameter to
+ * ALWAYS/IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION, allow chaining both operations.
  *
  * The current implementation is limited to researching one intermediate
  * step.
  *
- * By default, all potential C candidates will be used. setIntermediateCRS()
- * can be used to restrict them.
- *
- * The default is true.
+ * By default, with the IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION stratgey, all potential
+ * C candidates will be used if there is no direct tranformation.
  */
-void CoordinateOperationContext::setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(bool use) {
+void CoordinateOperationContext::setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+    IntermediateCRSUse use) {
     d->allowUseIntermediateCRS_ = use;
 }
 
@@ -9458,12 +9458,13 @@ void CoordinateOperationContext::setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(bool use) {
  *
  * Concretely if in the database there is an operation from A to C
  * (or C to A), and another one from C to B (or B to C), but no direct
- * operation between A and B, setting this parameter to true, allow
- * chaining both operations.
+ * operation between A and B, setting this parameter to
+ * ALWAYS/IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION, allow chaining both operations.
  *
- * The default is true.
+ * The default is IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION.
  */
-bool CoordinateOperationContext::getAllowUseIntermediateCRS() const {
+CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse
+CoordinateOperationContext::getAllowUseIntermediateCRS() const {
     return d->allowUseIntermediateCRS_;
 }
 
@@ -10401,9 +10402,6 @@ findOpsInRegistryDirect(const crs::CRSNNPtr &sourceCRS,
 static std::vector<CoordinateOperationNNPtr> findsOpsInRegistryWithIntermediate(
     const crs::CRSNNPtr &sourceCRS, const crs::CRSNNPtr &targetCRS,
     const CoordinateOperationContextNNPtr &context) {
-    if (!context->getAllowUseIntermediateCRS()) {
-        return std::vector<CoordinateOperationNNPtr>();
-    }
 
     const auto &authFactory = context->getAuthorityFactory();
     assert(authFactory);
@@ -11215,7 +11213,13 @@ CoordinateOperationFactory::Private::createOperations(
 
             // NAD27 to NAD83 has tens of results already. No need to look
             // for a pivot
-            if (res.size() < 5 || getenv("PROJ_FORCE_SEARCH_PIVOT")) {
+            if ((res.empty() &&
+                 context.context->getAllowUseIntermediateCRS() ==
+                     CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::
+                         IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION) ||
+                context.context->getAllowUseIntermediateCRS() ==
+                    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS ||
+                getenv("PROJ_FORCE_SEARCH_PIVOT")) {
                 auto resWithIntermediate = findsOpsInRegistryWithIntermediate(
                     sourceCRS, targetCRS, context.context);
                 res.insert(res.end(), resWithIntermediate.begin(),
diff --git a/src/iso19111/crs.cpp b/src/iso19111/crs.cpp
index ebbed7a1..01a588e3 100644
--- a/src/iso19111/crs.cpp
+++ b/src/iso19111/crs.cpp
@@ -375,9 +375,10 @@ VerticalCRSPtr CRS::extractVerticalCRS() const {
  *
  * @return a CRS.
  */
-CRSNNPtr
-CRS::createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(const io::DatabaseContextPtr &dbContext,
-                                     bool allowIntermediateCRS) const {
+CRSNNPtr CRS::createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+    const io::DatabaseContextPtr &dbContext,
+    operation::CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse
+        allowIntermediateCRSUse) const {
     auto thisAsCRS = NN_NO_CHECK(
         std::static_pointer_cast<CRS>(shared_from_this().as_nullable()));
     auto boundCRS = util::nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(thisAsCRS);
@@ -442,7 +443,7 @@ CRS::createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(const io::DatabaseContextPtr &dbContext,
                 authority == "any" ? std::string() : authority);
             auto ctxt = operation::CoordinateOperationContext::create(
                 authFactory, extent, 0.0);
-            ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(allowIntermediateCRS);
+            ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(allowIntermediateCRSUse);
             // ctxt->setSpatialCriterion(
             //    operation::CoordinateOperationContext::SpatialCriterion::PARTIAL_INTERSECTION);
             auto list =
diff --git a/src/proj.h b/src/proj.h
index f25c3228..af22c341 100644
--- a/src/proj.h
+++ b/src/proj.h
@@ -629,6 +629,19 @@ typedef enum {
     PROJ_SPATIAL_CRITERION_PARTIAL_INTERSECTION
 } PROJ_SPATIAL_CRITERION;
 
+    /** Describe if and how intermediate CRS should be used */
+typedef enum {
+    /** Always search for intermediate CRS. */
+    PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_ALWAYS,
+
+    /** Only attempt looking for intermediate CRS if there is no direct
+        * transformation available. */
+    PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_IF_NO_DIRECT_TRANSFORMATION,
+
+    /* Do not attempt looking for intermediate CRS. */
+    PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_NEVER,
+} PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE;
+
 /** Type of coordinate system. */
 typedef enum
 {
@@ -906,7 +919,7 @@ void PROJ_DLL proj_operation_factory_context_set_use_proj_alternative_grid_names
 void PROJ_DLL proj_operation_factory_context_set_allow_use_intermediate_crs(
     PJ_CONTEXT *ctx,
     PJ_OPERATION_FACTORY_CONTEXT *factory_ctx,
-    int allow);
+    PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE use);
 
 void PROJ_DLL proj_operation_factory_context_set_allowed_intermediate_crs(
     PJ_CONTEXT *ctx,
diff --git a/test/unit/Makefile.am b/test/unit/Makefile.am
index 210bdc90..57a03ca8 100644
--- a/test/unit/Makefile.am
+++ b/test/unit/Makefile.am
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ AUTOMAKE_OPTIONS = subdir-objects
 
 EXTRA_DIST = CMakeLists.txt
 
-noinst_HEADERS = gtest_include.h
+noinst_HEADERS = gtest_include.h test_primitives.hpp
 
 AM_CPPFLAGS = -I$(top_srcdir)/src -I$(top_srcdir)/include -I$(top_srcdir)/test @GTEST_CFLAGS@ @SQLITE3_CFLAGS@
 AM_CXXFLAGS = @CXX_WFLAGS@ @NO_ZERO_AS_NULL_POINTER_CONSTANT_FLAG@
diff --git a/test/unit/test_c_api.cpp b/test/unit/test_c_api.cpp
index 273a04e6..6205a9b8 100644
--- a/test/unit/test_c_api.cpp
+++ b/test/unit/test_c_api.cpp
@@ -1389,7 +1389,7 @@ TEST_F(CApi, proj_create_operations_with_pivot) {
         ASSERT_NE(ctxt, nullptr);
         ContextKeeper keeper_ctxt(ctxt);
         proj_operation_factory_context_set_allow_use_intermediate_crs(
-            m_ctxt, ctxt, false);
+            m_ctxt, ctxt, PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_NEVER);
 
         auto res = proj_create_operations(m_ctxt, source_crs, target_crs, ctxt);
         ASSERT_NE(res, nullptr);
@@ -1444,6 +1444,8 @@ TEST_F(CApi, proj_create_operations_with_pivot) {
             m_ctxt, ctxt, PROJ_SPATIAL_CRITERION_PARTIAL_INTERSECTION);
         proj_operation_factory_context_set_grid_availability_use(
             m_ctxt, ctxt, PROJ_GRID_AVAILABILITY_IGNORED);
+        proj_operation_factory_context_set_allow_use_intermediate_crs(
+            m_ctxt, ctxt, PROJ_INTERMEDIATE_CRS_USE_ALWAYS);
 
         auto res = proj_create_operations(m_ctxt, source_crs, target_crs, ctxt);
         ASSERT_NE(res, nullptr);
diff --git a/test/unit/test_crs.cpp b/test/unit/test_crs.cpp
index 26bcf621..4953529c 100644
--- a/test/unit/test_crs.cpp
+++ b/test/unit/test_crs.cpp
@@ -3436,8 +3436,12 @@ TEST(crs, boundCRS_crs_link) {
         EXPECT_TRUE(baseCRS->isEquivalentTo(GeographicCRS::EPSG_4267.get()));
         EXPECT_TRUE(baseCRS->canonicalBoundCRS() != nullptr);
 
-        EXPECT_TRUE(baseCRS->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(nullptr, false)
-                        ->isEquivalentTo(baseCRS->canonicalBoundCRS().get()));
+        EXPECT_TRUE(
+            baseCRS
+                ->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                    nullptr,
+                    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER)
+                ->isEquivalentTo(baseCRS->canonicalBoundCRS().get()));
     }
 
     {
@@ -4725,27 +4729,35 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
     auto factory = AuthorityFactory::create(dbContext, "EPSG");
     {
         auto crs_4326 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4326");
-        EXPECT_EQ(crs_4326->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(crs_4326->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   crs_4326);
     }
     {
         auto crs_32631 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("32631");
-        EXPECT_EQ(crs_32631->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(crs_32631->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   crs_32631);
     }
     {
         // Pulkovo 42 East Germany
         auto crs_5670 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("5670");
-        EXPECT_EQ(crs_5670->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(crs_5670->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   crs_5670);
     }
     {
         // Pulkovo 42 Romania
         auto crs_3844 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("3844");
-        auto bound =
-            crs_3844->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs_3844->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_NE(bound, crs_3844);
-        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   bound);
         auto boundCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(bound);
         ASSERT_TRUE(boundCRS != nullptr);
@@ -4759,10 +4771,12 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
     {
         // Pulkovo 42 Poland
         auto crs_2171 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("2171");
-        auto bound =
-            crs_2171->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs_2171->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_NE(bound, crs_2171);
-        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   bound);
         auto boundCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(bound);
         ASSERT_TRUE(boundCRS != nullptr);
@@ -4776,10 +4790,12 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
     {
         // NTF (Paris)
         auto crs_4807 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4807");
-        auto bound =
-            crs_4807->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs_4807->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_NE(bound, crs_4807);
-        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   bound);
         auto boundCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(bound);
         ASSERT_TRUE(boundCRS != nullptr);
@@ -4791,10 +4807,12 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
     {
         // NTF (Paris) / Lambert zone II + NGF-IGN69 height
         auto crs_7421 = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("7421");
-        auto bound =
-            crs_7421->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs_7421->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_NE(bound, crs_7421);
-        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false),
+        EXPECT_EQ(bound->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
                   bound);
         auto boundCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(bound);
         ASSERT_TRUE(boundCRS != nullptr);
@@ -4807,13 +4825,17 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
     }
     {
         auto crs = createVerticalCRS();
-        EXPECT_EQ(crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false), crs);
+        EXPECT_EQ(crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+                      dbContext,
+                      CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER),
+                  crs);
     }
     {
         auto factoryIGNF =
             AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "IGNF");
         auto crs = factoryIGNF->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("TERA50STEREO");
-        auto bound = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_NE(bound, crs);
         auto boundCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(bound);
         ASSERT_TRUE(boundCRS != nullptr);
@@ -4827,7 +4849,8 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
         auto factoryIGNF =
             AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "IGNF");
         auto crs = factoryIGNF->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("PGP50");
-        auto bound = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_NE(bound, crs);
         auto boundCRS = nn_dynamic_pointer_cast<BoundCRS>(bound);
         ASSERT_TRUE(boundCRS != nullptr);
@@ -4838,7 +4861,8 @@ TEST(crs, crs_createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible) {
     }
     {
         auto crs = factory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4269"); // NAD83
-        auto bound = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(dbContext, false);
+        auto bound = crs->createBoundCRSToWGS84IfPossible(
+            dbContext, CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
         EXPECT_EQ(bound, crs);
     }
 }
diff --git a/test/unit/test_factory.cpp b/test/unit/test_factory.cpp
index 40728f96..80de017f 100644
--- a/test/unit/test_factory.cpp
+++ b/test/unit/test_factory.cpp
@@ -28,6 +28,8 @@
 
 #include "gtest_include.h"
 
+#include "test_primitives.hpp"
+
 #include "proj/common.hpp"
 #include "proj/coordinateoperation.hpp"
 #include "proj/coordinatesystem.hpp"
@@ -991,10 +993,12 @@ TEST(factory, AuthorityFactory_test_uom_9110) {
     auto factory = AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "EPSG");
     // This tests conversion from unit of measure EPSG:9110 DDD.MMSSsss
     auto crs = factory->createProjectedCRS("2172");
-    EXPECT_EQ(crs->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
-              "+proj=sterea +lat_0=53.0019444444444 +lon_0=21.5027777777778 "
-              "+k=0.9998 +x_0=4603000 +y_0=5806000 +ellps=krass +units=m "
-              "+no_defs +type=crs");
+    EXPECT_PRED_FORMAT2(
+        ComparePROJString,
+        crs->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
+        "+proj=sterea +lat_0=53.0019444444444 +lon_0=21.5027777777778 "
+        "+k=0.9998 +x_0=4603000 +y_0=5806000 +ellps=krass +units=m "
+        "+no_defs +type=crs");
 }
 
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -1612,7 +1616,8 @@ class FactoryWithTmpDatabase : public ::testing::Test {
             {
                 auto ctxt =
                     CoordinateOperationContext::create(factory, nullptr, 0);
-                ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(false);
+                ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+                    CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
                 res = CoordinateOperationFactory::create()->createOperations(
                     srcCRS, targetCRS, ctxt);
                 EXPECT_EQ(res.size(), 1U);
diff --git a/test/unit/test_operation.cpp b/test/unit/test_operation.cpp
index 103b856c..90deb661 100644
--- a/test/unit/test_operation.cpp
+++ b/test/unit/test_operation.cpp
@@ -28,8 +28,12 @@
 
 #include "gtest_include.h"
 
+#include "test_primitives.hpp"
+
 // to be able to use internal::replaceAll
+#ifndef FROM_PROJ_CPP
 #define FROM_PROJ_CPP
+#endif
 
 #include "proj/common.hpp"
 #include "proj/coordinateoperation.hpp"
@@ -4181,7 +4185,8 @@ TEST(operation, geogCRS_to_geogCRS_context_default) {
     auto ctxt = CoordinateOperationContext::create(authFactory, nullptr, 0);
     ctxt->setSpatialCriterion(
         CoordinateOperationContext::SpatialCriterion::PARTIAL_INTERSECTION);
-    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(false);
+    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
 
     // Directly found in database
     {
@@ -4237,7 +4242,8 @@ TEST(operation, geogCRS_to_geogCRS_context_match_by_name) {
     auto ctxt = CoordinateOperationContext::create(authFactory, nullptr, 0);
     ctxt->setSpatialCriterion(
         CoordinateOperationContext::SpatialCriterion::PARTIAL_INTERSECTION);
-    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(false);
+    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::NEVER);
     auto NAD27 = GeographicCRS::create(
         PropertyMap().set(IdentifiedObject::NAME_KEY,
                           GeographicCRS::EPSG_4267->nameStr()),
@@ -4577,6 +4583,8 @@ TEST(operation, geogCRS_to_geogCRS_context_concatenated_operation) {
     auto authFactory =
         AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "EPSG");
     auto ctxt = CoordinateOperationContext::create(authFactory, nullptr, 0.0);
+    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS);
     auto list = CoordinateOperationFactory::create()->createOperations(
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4807"), // NTF(Paris)
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4171"), // RGF93
@@ -4640,6 +4648,8 @@ TEST(operation, geogCRS_to_geogCRS_CH1903_to_CH1903plus_context) {
     auto authFactory =
         AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "EPSG");
     auto ctxt = CoordinateOperationContext::create(authFactory, nullptr, 0.0);
+    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS);
     auto list = CoordinateOperationFactory::create()->createOperations(
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4149"), // CH1903
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4150"), // CH1903+
@@ -4861,11 +4871,13 @@ TEST(operation, geocentricCRS_to_geocentricCRS_different_datum_context) {
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4896"), ctxt);
     ASSERT_EQ(list.size(), 1U);
     EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->nameStr(), "ITRF2000 to ITRF2005 (1)");
-    EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
-              "+proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
-              "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
-              "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
-              "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector");
+    EXPECT_PRED_FORMAT2(
+        ComparePROJString,
+        list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
+        "+proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
+        "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
+        "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
+        "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector");
 }
 
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -4904,15 +4916,17 @@ TEST(operation,
               "Conversion from ITRF2000 (geog3D) to ITRF2000 (geocentric) + "
               "ITRF2000 to ITRF2005 (1) + "
               "Conversion from ITRF2005 (geocentric) to ITRF2005 (geog3D)");
-    EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
-              "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1 +step "
-              "+proj=unitconvert +xy_in=deg +z_in=m +xy_out=rad +z_out=m "
-              "+step +proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
-              "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
-              "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
-              "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector +step +inv "
-              "+proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=rad "
-              "+z_in=m +xy_out=deg +z_out=m +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1");
+    EXPECT_PRED_FORMAT2(
+        ComparePROJString,
+        list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
+        "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1 +step "
+        "+proj=unitconvert +xy_in=deg +z_in=m +xy_out=rad +z_out=m "
+        "+step +proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
+        "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
+        "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
+        "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector +step +inv "
+        "+proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=rad "
+        "+z_in=m +xy_out=deg +z_out=m +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1");
 }
 
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -4930,13 +4944,15 @@ TEST(operation, geogCRS_to_geocentricCRS_different_datum_context) {
     EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->nameStr(),
               "Conversion from ITRF2000 (geog3D) to ITRF2000 (geocentric) + "
               "ITRF2000 to ITRF2005 (1)");
-    EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
-              "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1 +step "
-              "+proj=unitconvert +xy_in=deg +z_in=m +xy_out=rad +z_out=m "
-              "+step +proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
-              "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
-              "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
-              "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector");
+    EXPECT_PRED_FORMAT2(
+        ComparePROJString,
+        list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
+        "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1 +step "
+        "+proj=unitconvert +xy_in=deg +z_in=m +xy_out=rad +z_out=m "
+        "+step +proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
+        "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
+        "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
+        "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector");
 }
 
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -4954,13 +4970,15 @@ TEST(operation, geocentricCRS_to_geogCRS_different_datum_context) {
     EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->nameStr(),
               "ITRF2000 to ITRF2005 (1) + "
               "Conversion from ITRF2005 (geocentric) to ITRF2005 (geog3D)");
-    EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
-              "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
-              "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
-              "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
-              "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector +step +inv "
-              "+proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=rad "
-              "+z_in=m +xy_out=deg +z_out=m +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1");
+    EXPECT_PRED_FORMAT2(
+        ComparePROJString,
+        list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
+        "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
+        "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
+        "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
+        "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector +step +inv "
+        "+proj=cart +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=rad "
+        "+z_in=m +xy_out=deg +z_out=m +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1");
 }
 
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -4984,21 +5002,23 @@ TEST(operation, esri_projectedCRS_to_geogCRS_with_ITRF_intermediate_context) {
               "(geocentric) + Inverse of ITRF2000 to NAD83(CORS96) (1) + "
               "ITRF2000 to ITRF2005 (1) + "
               "Conversion from ITRF2005 (geocentric) to ITRF2005 (geog3D)");
-    EXPECT_EQ(list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
-              "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=us-ft +z_in=us-ft "
-              "+xy_out=m +z_out=m +step +inv +proj=lcc +lat_0=33.75 +lon_0=-79 "
-              "+lat_1=34.3333333333333 +lat_2=36.1666666666667 "
-              "+x_0=609601.219202438 +y_0=0 +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=cart "
-              "+ellps=GRS80 +step +inv +proj=helmert +x=0.9956 +y=-1.9013 "
-              "+z=-0.5215 +rx=0.025915 +ry=0.009426 +rz=0.011599 +s=0.00062 "
-              "+dx=0.0007 +dy=-0.0007 +dz=0.0005 +drx=6.7e-05 +dry=-0.000757 "
-              "+drz=-5.1e-05 +ds=-0.00018 +t_epoch=1997 "
-              "+convention=coordinate_frame +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
-              "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
-              "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
-              "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector +step +inv +proj=cart "
-              "+ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=rad +z_in=m "
-              "+xy_out=deg +z_out=m +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1");
+    EXPECT_PRED_FORMAT2(
+        ComparePROJString,
+        list[0]->exportToPROJString(PROJStringFormatter::create().get()),
+        "+proj=pipeline +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=us-ft +z_in=us-ft "
+        "+xy_out=m +z_out=m +step +inv +proj=lcc +lat_0=33.75 +lon_0=-79 "
+        "+lat_1=34.3333333333333 +lat_2=36.1666666666667 "
+        "+x_0=609601.219202438 +y_0=0 +ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=cart "
+        "+ellps=GRS80 +step +inv +proj=helmert +x=0.9956 +y=-1.9013 "
+        "+z=-0.5215 +rx=0.025915 +ry=0.009426 +rz=0.011599 +s=0.00062 "
+        "+dx=0.0007 +dy=-0.0007 +dz=0.0005 +drx=6.7e-05 +dry=-0.000757 "
+        "+drz=-5.1e-05 +ds=-0.00018 +t_epoch=1997 "
+        "+convention=coordinate_frame +step +proj=helmert +x=-0.0001 "
+        "+y=0.0008 +z=0.0058 +rx=0 +ry=0 +rz=0 +s=-0.0004 +dx=0.0002 "
+        "+dy=-0.0001 +dz=0.0018 +drx=0 +dry=0 +drz=0 +ds=-8e-05 "
+        "+t_epoch=2000 +convention=position_vector +step +inv +proj=cart "
+        "+ellps=GRS80 +step +proj=unitconvert +xy_in=rad +z_in=m "
+        "+xy_out=deg +z_out=m +step +proj=axisswap +order=2,1");
 }
 
 // ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -5113,6 +5133,8 @@ TEST(operation,
     auto authFactory =
         AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "EPSG");
     auto ctxt = CoordinateOperationContext::create(authFactory, nullptr, 0.0);
+    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS);
     auto list = CoordinateOperationFactory::create()->createOperations(
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("4807"),  // NTF(Paris)
         authFactory->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("32631"), // UTM31 WGS84
@@ -6191,6 +6213,8 @@ TEST(operation, IGNF_LAMB1_TO_EPSG_4326) {
     auto authFactory =
         AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), std::string());
     auto ctxt = CoordinateOperationContext::create(authFactory, nullptr, 0.0);
+    ctxt->setAllowUseIntermediateCRS(
+        CoordinateOperationContext::IntermediateCRSUse::ALWAYS);
     auto list = CoordinateOperationFactory::create()->createOperations(
         AuthorityFactory::create(DatabaseContext::create(), "IGNF")
             ->createCoordinateReferenceSystem("LAMB1"),
diff --git a/test/unit/test_primitives.hpp b/test/unit/test_primitives.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..86e52d0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/unit/test_primitives.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+/******************************************************************************
+ *
+ * Project:  PROJ
+ * Purpose:  Test ISO19111:2018 implementation
+ * Author:   Even Rouault <even dot rouault at spatialys dot com>
+ *
+ ******************************************************************************
+ * Copyright (c) 2018, Even Rouault <even dot rouault at spatialys dot com>
+ *
+ * Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a
+ * copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
+ * to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation
+ * the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense,
+ * and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the
+ * Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+ *
+ * The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+ * in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+ *
+ * THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS
+ * OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+ * FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL
+ * THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+ * LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING
+ * FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
+ * DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
+ ****************************************************************************/
+
+#include "gtest_include.h"
+
+#ifndef FROM_PROJ_CPP
+#define FROM_PROJ_CPP
+#endif
+
+#include "proj/internal/internal.hpp"
+
+#include <cmath>
+#include <cstdlib>
+
+using namespace osgeo::proj::internal;
+
+static ::testing::AssertionResult ComparePROJString(const char* m_expr,
+                                                    const char* n_expr,
+                                                    const std::string& m,
+                                                    const std::string& n) {
+    //if (m == n) return ::testing::AssertionSuccess();
+    auto mTokens = split(m, ' ');
+    auto nTokens = split(n, ' ');
+    if( mTokens.size() == nTokens.size() )
+    {
+        bool success = true;
+        for( size_t i = 0; i < mTokens.size(); i++ )
+        {
+            auto mSubTokens = split(mTokens[i], '=');
+            auto nSubTokens = split(nTokens[i], '=');
+            if( mSubTokens.size() != nSubTokens.size() ) {
+                success = false;
+                break;
+            }
+            if( mSubTokens.size() == 2 && nSubTokens.size() == 2 ) {
+                if( mSubTokens[0] != nSubTokens[0] ) {
+                    success = false;
+                    break;
+                }
+                double mValue = 0.0;
+                bool mIsDouble = false;
+                try {
+                    mValue = c_locale_stod(mSubTokens[1]);
+                    mIsDouble = true;
+                } catch( const std::exception &) {}
+                double nValue = 0.0;
+                bool nIsDouble = false;
+                try {
+                    nValue = c_locale_stod(nSubTokens[1]);
+                    nIsDouble = true;
+                } catch( const std::exception &) {}
+                if( mIsDouble != nIsDouble ) {
+                    success = false;
+                    break;
+                }
+                if( mIsDouble ) {
+                    success = std::abs(mValue - nValue) <= 1e-14 * std::abs(mValue);
+                } else {
+                    success = mSubTokens[1] == nSubTokens[1];
+                }
+                if( !success ) {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if( success ) {
+            return ::testing::AssertionSuccess();
+        }
+    }
+
+    return ::testing::AssertionFailure() << m_expr << " and " << n_expr
+        << " (" << m << " and " << n << ") are different";
+}